Rape Victim     1                  Running head: RAPE VICTIM CULPABILITY     Rape Victim Culpability: The Influence of Public and Private Self-Awareness Sue D. Nym Valdosta State University

 

Rape Victim     2 Rape Victim Culpability: The Influence of Public and Private Self-Awareness                            Rape is increasingly becoming a problem in the United States. Recently, Krista Absalon                 of Gouverneur, New York was allegedly raped by five men in a local bar while she was passed                  out. The five men were charged with rape, which carries a 25 year maximum prison sentence                  term, yet, these men served no jail time and were fined $750.00 on charges of sexual                  misconduct (Associated Press, 1994).                           Although to the lay person this may seem shocking, the literature on female rape has                  shown that in most instances a female victim of rape is held somewhat responsible for her own                 victimization (e.g., Calhoun, Selby, & Warring, 1976; Damrosch, 1985; Janoff-Bulman, Timko, &                 Carli, 1985). Underlying this finding is research that has identified several key variables that                 influence the degree to which a rape victim is held culpable for her own victimization. For                  example, a female rape victim is held more responsible when she is physically attractive (e.g.,                  Calhoun, Selby, Cann, & Keller, 1978; McCaul, Veltum, Boyechko, & Crawford, 1990),                  provocatively dressed (Edmonds & Cahoon, 1986; Kanekar & Kolsawalla, 1980), and                  considered to be "morally" decent (Jones & Aronson, 1973; Pugh, 1983).                             The question one often asks is: do these findings generalize to the "real world"?                 Apparently they do. For example, in 1992 five men were accused of raping a woman in Florida                (Clary, 1992). Almost immediately, the character of the victim came under scrutiny and in the                 end the five men were acquitted of all charges...why? The victim was not believed by the                 members of the jury and some individuals suggested that the victim actually encouraged the

 

Rape Victim     3                 rape (Clary, 1992).                Theories of Victim Blame                             One fairly reliable finding in all the literature is that male participants assign more                  culpability to a female victim of rape than do female participants (Deitz & Byrnes, 1981;                  Gilmartin-Zena, 1983; Howells et al., 1984; Jenkins & Dambrot, 1987; Kanekar & Nazareth, 1988;                 McCaul et al., 1990; see also Jensen & Gutek, 1982). A reasonably strong argument can be                  made that the socialization process in the United States is a potential underlying reason why                  males have a stronger tendency to blame the victim than females.                             Burt (1980) has suggested that rape is a reasonable expansion of the sex role                  socialization process in the United States that justifies forceful sexuality (cf., Burt & Albin,                  1981). Accordingly, traditional sex roles beliefs imply that women are not supposed to be                  sexually aggressive with men nor have the same sexual freedom as men (Check & Malamuth,                  1983; see also Giacopassi & Dull, 1986; Weis & Borges, 1973). The aforementioned                  socialization process may have developed partially from a problem of miscommunication                  between the sexes (see Abbey, 1982; Ellis, 1989; Goodchilds & Zellman, 1984; Muehlenhard,                  1988). The male notion that women often say "no" when they really mean "yes" suggests                  that women offer what has been termed a "societal no" or "token resistance" in order to be                  coaxed into having sex in an attempt to earn the respect of their suitor (Muehlenhard &                  Hollabaugh, 1988; Scully & Marolla, 1984).                             Evidence for Burt's conceptualization is supported by research showing that 39.3% of                  610 college women reported saying "no" to sexual intercourse when they really meant "yes"

 

Rape Victim     4                  (Muehlenhard & Hollabaugh, 1988). Muehlenhard and Rodgers (1993) investigated further the                 stereotypical belief that women sometimes say "no" when they really mean "yes." Their results                  showed that men and women both engage infrequently in this behavior and "token resistance"                  usually occurs in current relationships where both partners are cognizant of this "societal no."                  This finding contradicts the assumptions drawn by earlier studies.                             The belief that women say "no" when the sometimes mean "yes" may foster behavior                  which is likely to lead to the occurrence of acquaintance rape or date rape. Research has shown                 that many people do not consider date rape to be "real" rape (Klemack & Klemack, 1976). The                  possibility of misunderstanding dating behaviors is evidenced further by research                  demonstrating that a woman who goes back to a man's apartment is believed to be implying a                 willingness to engage in sexual intercourse (Burt, 1980; Muehlenhard, 1988; Muehlenhard,                  Friedman, & Thomas, 1985). This belief best describes the term "reckless rape," which occurs                 when the man fully believes the woman agreed to sexual intercourse, but in actuality did not                 (Tetreault & Lowman, 1987).                             A number of alternative explanations have been put forth for why people will blame an                  apparently innocent victim (e.g., Gilmartin-Zena, 1983). Walster (1966) suggested that people                  have a need to feel that the world is somehow controllable. When a person has encountered                  what could be considered a "small" loss, it is easy for observers to attribute that loss to a                  chance occurrence. As the loss increases and becomes more severe, it becomes harder for                  an observer to admit that such a thing could happen to them. By telling our self that we                  would behave differently in a similar situation or that we are a different type of person than

 

Rape Victim     5               the victim, we indirectly feel protected and secure.                              Janoff-Bulman et al. (1985) have suggested the presence of a hindsight bias, whereby,                  observers will blame the victim only because they know the outcome of the event. Observers                  do not realize that prior to the victimization the victim is acting without knowing the outcome                 produced by their behavior. Instead, victims make their behavioral decisions based on the                  absence of hindsight. Once observers know the outcome of an event, it then becomes harder                  to believe that anything else could have resulted from the behaviors in question.                             The most common theory explaining the victim blame phenomenon is the belief in a just                 world hypothesis (Lerner, 1980; Lerner & Miller, 1978; Lerner & Simmons, 1966). This theory                  states that people assume others get what they deserve and deserve what they get. Thus, if a                  person is judged to be "kind" or "generous" then that person is seen as warranting certain                  desirable fates, however, a person judged to be "cruel" or "stupid" is viewed as being                  deserving of undesirable outcomes. Accordingly, people will blame the victim in order to keep                 their world just. This theory and Shaver's (1985) theory of defensive attribution are closely                  related. The defensive attribution theory holds that observers will attribute the least amount                 of responsibility to a person who is most like them and the greatest amount of responsibility                  to a person who is most like them.                                 The four theories just discussed are interrelated to one another, especially the                  theories by Lerner (1980), Shaver (1985), and Walster (1966). In one way or another, each                  theory assumes that people will refuse to believe that "uncontrollable" or "bad" events could                 happen to them and search for a justification as to why a person was victimized. So when

 

Rape Victim     6                 observers witness or read about violent attacks such as a rape, they protect themselves by                  attributing fault to the victim by making such attributions as "she shouldn't have been dressed                 that way" or "she knew what she was doing." However, these theories of victim blame are                  lacking in that they do not receive even a moderate amount of support when directly tested.                The Self                             Current research in the theory of the self holds promise for advancing the research on                 why female rape victims are held partially responsible for their own victimization. The issue                  how the self could potentially effect attributions of responsibility made by third party                  observers to female victims of rape is quite germane. Two aspects of the self are especially                  relevant: public and private self-awareness. These two aspects of the self are relevant                  inasmuch as they deal with the way observers tend to direct their own public opinions that                  are congruent with whatever the situation calls for or from their own internal beliefs and                  attitudes. Private self-awareness occurs when one becomes aware of the features that are                  unknown by others. The two processes that occur in private self-awareness are: a) more                  explicit awareness of the domain and b) the strengthening or intensification of the affect                 (Buss, 1980a). In that, focussing on the internal event intensifies, for my purposes, the way                 in which individuals will feel about their attitudes toward rape victims. As Buss (1980a)                  states, "It bears repeating that only internal events that are affectively charged are                  intensified by private self-awareness" (p. 14). So, when an individual focuses on their                  private thoughts they make those thoughts more salient or distinct.                             The other type of self-awareness, public self-awareness, occurs when we become

 
 

Rape Victim     7                 aware that we are being observed by others or when we are the center of attention. For                  example, when someone attempts to take your picture, you usually try to straighten up your                  overall appearance, because you are concerned about how others will evaluate you (see                  Abrams & Brown, 1989). When an individual is publicly self-aware, he or she will be more                  concerned about how other people will view their appearance and/or behavior. Individuals                  influenced by public self-awareness are concerned with the way others see them, yet,                  self-aware people are usually observing themselves. In other words, their attention is still                  focussed on the self and not outward toward others (Alden, Teschuk, & Tee, 1992; Buss,                  1980b, Gibbons, Carver, Scheier, & Hormuth, 1979). Public self-awareness relates to private                 self-awareness since the former makes us feel as if we are "under a microscope" which                  indirectly causes us to look inward to how we see ourselves. Indeed, research has shown a                 positive correlation between public and private self-awareness that has been reported to                  range from .47 (Hamilton, Falconer, & Greenberg, 1992) to .51 (Ferrari, 1992).  Although                 there is a moderate correlation between public and private self-awareness, Buss (1980b)                  stated that when a person is publicly self-aware, private self-awareness tends to exert such                  a insignificant influence that is can be safely ignored and vice versa.                             The articles by Wicklund (1979) and Buss (1980a 1980b) suggest that if an individual                  is made to be self-aware of some attitude or behavior, then that person will act in accord                  with that attitude or behavior. An example cited by Wicklund illustrates this point: Carver                  (1975) conducted a study in which he first examined participants' attitudes toward the use                  of punishment to aid in learning and were then classified as high and low punitive

 

Rape Victim     8                 participants. Participants were then put in a situation in which they could use their                  "philosophy" regarding learning by choosing to shock the "learner" when a mistake was                  made. Results showed that self-directed attention (through the use of a mirror) affected the                  amount of shock delivered by both high and low punitive participants, whereas there was                  no difference for the controls who did not have attention directed at the self.  Results of this                  study may have potential relevance to the study of attribution of blame for rape victims.                  Because much of this literature is in a state of disarray regarding why rape victims are                  blamed, the introduction of an individual's self-awareness offers new insights into this                  phenomenon.                             The purpose of the present study is to determine the extent to which public and                  private self-awareness and positive and negative attitudes toward rape victims effect                  attributions of victim responsibility. Based on the above literature and Carver (1975), I                  predict that when participants holding negative attitudes toward rape victims are induced                  to be privately self-aware, they will attribute a greater amount of responsibility to the                  victim than will similar participants induced to be publicly self-aware. Method                Summary of Design                             This study will be a 2 x 3 between-participants factorial design with independent                  variables being attitudes toward rape victims (low or high) and self-awareness (private                  self-awareness, control, public self-awareness). The participant variable of attitudes                  toward rape victims will be created from participants’ responses to an attitudes toward rape

 

Rape Victim     9                 victim scale by a median split analysis.                Participants                             Based on the previous literature on power (e.g., Cohen, 1988; Wahlsten, 1991) and a                  suggested power of .80, I am proposing a total of 35 participants per condition. Participants will                  consist of 300 undergraduates (50% female) from Valdosta State University aged 18 or older.                  They will be enrolled in introductory psychology and be given course credit for their                  participation.                Materials                             Participants will be given the Attitudes toward Rape Victims Scale (ARVS; Ward, 1988).                 The ARVS (see Appendix A) was normed on 411 undergraduates from the University of                  Singapore and 572 undergraduates from the University of Arizona. The ARVS contains                  prejudicial and stereotyped beliefs regarding rape victimology. Examples of the items that                  comprise this scale are: "Intoxicated women are usually willing to have sexual relations";                  "Most women secretly desire to be raped"; and "Many women claim rape if they have                  consented to sexual relations but have changed their minds afterwards." The 25 items are                  scored on a five point scale from (0) disagree strongly to (4) agree strongly with items 3, 5, 7,                  10, 12, 15, 19, and 22 reversed scored giving the ARVS a range of 0 to 100. Higher scores                  reflect more unfavorable attitudes toward rape victims. The scale has been reported to be                  measuring a unitary construct with both the Singaporean and United States sample and has                 a reliability of .83 and .86, respectively.                             Participants will also be given the Rape Myth Belief Scale (RMBS; Burt, 1980). The

 

Rape Victim    10                 RMBS (see Appendix B) was normed on 598 Minnesota adults aged 18 years and older. The                  RMBS contains "cultural myths" surrounding the victims of rape. Examples of the items                  comprising this scale are: "A woman who goes to the home or apartment of a man on their                  first date implies that she is willing to have sex"; "Any healthy woman can resist a rapist";                  and "Many women have an unconscious wish to be raped, and may then unconsciously set                  up a situation in which they are likely to be attacked." Items 1 through 11 are scored on a seven                  point scale and items 12 to 19 are scored on a 5 point scale, hence, there is a possible range of                  19 to 117 with lower scores representing more adherence to rape myth beliefs. Items 2, and 14 to                 19 are reverse scored. The reliability for the scale has been reported to be .88 (Burt, 1980).                Procedure                             Participants will be run in groups of three. They will enter the experimental room and sit                 down at a large table located in the center of the room. Participants will be told that the purpose                 of the study is to investigate how individuals interpret interactions between people. They will                  then read an informed consent form (see Appendix C) and then sign the form if they wish to                 continue in the experiment. At this table, participants will fill out the ARVS and the RMBS, as                  well as completing a brief cognitive task. The cognitive task will instruct the participants to                  write 16 letters upside down and backwards. The purpose of the cognitive task is to help                  alleviate any bias that may have been activated through the answering of the two attitude                  measures.                             Once participants have completed the tasks, they will be randomly assigned to smaller                 experimental rooms located within the larger experimental room. Based on the research

 

Rape Victim    11                 manipulating public and private self-awareness, one of these rooms will consist of a video                  camera to induce public self-awareness (Buss, 1980; Snyder & Monsoon, 1979) and another                  room will contain a small mirror to induce private self-awareness (Baldwin & Holmes, 1987;                 Gibbons, Carver, Scheier, & Hormuth, 1979; Scheier & Carver, 1977, 1980). Participants will be                  told that the video camera and the mirror are part of an ongoing experiment by a note posted                  next to each of the stimuli. The remaining room will contain neither a video camera nor a mirror.                             When participants enter the smaller experimental rooms, they will find a file folder                  containing a fictitious scenario depicting an incidence of date rape adopted from Shotland and                 Goodstein (1983: see Appendix D) and a questionnaire. After reading the scenario, participants                  will answer a brief questionnaire assessing victim and attacker responsibility for the incident,                  as well as how much the victim deserved the attack. The questionnaire will also contain an                  open ended question to make sure that participants in the private and public self-awareness                  conditions noticed the appropriate stimuli that have been thought to assess these states (see                  Buss, 1980). Participants will be asked, "In the space provided below, please describe the room                 in which you completed the experiment" (see Appendix E).                             After participants have completed the experiment, they will be informed of the true                  purpose of the experiment along with the predictions and a written "Explanation of Study"                  copy (see Appendix F). Participants will also be informed how to obtain the results of the                  study and allowed to ask any questions.

 

Rape Victim    12 Results                Median Split Analyses                              Because research has shown that men and women differ significantly on the ARVS                 and the RMBS (see Burt, 1980; Ward, 1988), median split analyses will be conducted                  separately by sex of participant. Participants scoring in the upper and lower thirds of both                  scales will be assigned to the positive attitude and negative attitude conditions, respectively.                Ratings of Victim Responsibility                              A  2 (attitudes toward rape victims: low vs. high) x 3 (private self-awareness, control,                  public self-awareness) analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be conducted to determine whether                 the manipulation of self-awareness affected ratings of victim responsibility. The                  hypothesized results are presented in Figure 1.                Ratings of Victim Deservingness                             A  2 x 3 ANOVA will be conducted to determine whether the manipulation of                  self-awareness affected ratings of victim deservingness. The hypothesized results are                  presented in Figure 2.                             The results should show that those participants who have been made self-aware of                  their attitudes towards rape victims will differ significantly from those participants who were                  not made self-aware. One area that would greatly benefit from such findings is the judicial                  system. As it now stands, jurors are put in a position in which much of the attention is                  focussed on them, hence, it is possible that this "self-awareness" intensifies jurors'                  pre-conceived ideas about victims of rape or any crime.

 

Rape Victim    13 References                             Abbey, A. (1982). Sex differences in attributions for friendly behavior: Do males                  misperceive females' friendliness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 830-838.                             Abrams, D., & Brown, R. (1989). Self-consciousness and social identity: Self-regulation                 as a group member. Social Psychology Quarterly, 52, 311-318.                             Alden, L. E., Teschuk, M., & Tee, K. (1992). Public self-awareness and withdrawal from                  social interactions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 249-267.                             Associated Press. (1992, April 14). Alleged rape victim seeks 'day in court.' Lexington                Herald Leader.                             Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and                Social Psychology, 38, 217-230.                             Burt, M. R., & Albin, R. S. (1981). Rape myths, rape definitions, and probability of                  conviction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 11, 212-230.                             Buss, A. H. (1980a). The theory: Private aspects. In Self-consciousness and social                anxiety. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.                             Buss, A. H. (1980b). The theory: Public aspects. In Self-consciousness and social                anxiety. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.                             Calhoun, L. G., Selby, J. W., & Warring, L. J. (1976). Social perception of the victims'                  causal role in rape: An exploratory examination of four factors. Human Relations, 29, 517-526.                             Calhoun, L. G., Selby, J. W., Cann, A., & Keller, G. T. (1978). The effects of victim                  attractiveness and sex of respondent on social reactions to victims of rape. British Journal of

 

Rape Victim    14                Social and Clinical Psychology, 17, 191-192.                             Carver, C. S. (1975). Physical aggression as a function of objective self-awareness and                  attitudes toward punishment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 510-519.                             Check, J. V. P., & Malamuth, N. (1985). An empirical assessment of some feminist                  hypotheses about rape. International Journal of Women's Studies, 8, 414-423.                             Clary, M. (1992, March 23). Out of control. Los Angeles Times.                             Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.).                 Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.                             Damrosch, S. P. (1985). How perceived carelessness and time of attack affect nursing                  students' attributions about rape victims. Psychological Reports, 56, 531-536.                             Deitz, S. R., & Byrnes, L. E. (1981). Attribution of responsibility for sexual assault: The                  influence of observer empathy and defendant occupation and attractiveness. Journal of                Psychology, 108, 17-29.                             Edmonds, E. M., & Cahoon, D. D. (1986). Attitudes concerning crimes related to clothing                 worn by female victims. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 24, 444-446.                             Ellis, L. (1989). Theories of rape: Inquiries into the causes of sexual aggression.  New                  York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.                             Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis                  of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. Journal of Research                in Personality, 26, 75-84.                             Giacopassi, D. J., & Dull, R. T. (1986). Gender and racial differences in the acceptance of

 

Rape Victim    15                 rape myths within a college population. Sex Roles, 15, 63-75.                             Gibbons, F. X., Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Hormuth, S. E. (1979). Self-focussed                 attention and the placebo effect: Fooling some of the people some of the time. Journal of                Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 263-274.                             Gilmartin-Zena, P. (1983). Attribution theory and rape victim responsibility. Deviant                Behavior, 4, 357-374.                             Goodchilds, J. D., & Zellman, G. L. (1984). Sexual signaling and sexual aggression in                  adolescent relationships. In N. M. Malamuth & E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Pornography and sexual                aggression (pp. 233-243).  Orlando, FL: Academic Press.                             Hamilton, J. C., Falconer, J. J., & Greenberg, M. D. (1992). The relationship between                 self-consciousness and dietary restraint. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11, 158-166.                             Howells, K., Shaw, F., Greasley, M., Robertson, J., Gloster, D., & Metcalfe, N. (1984).                  Perceptions of rape in a British sample: Effects of relationship, victim status, sex, and attitudes                  to women. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 35-40.                             Janoff-Bulman, R., Timko, C., & Carli, L. L. (1985). Cognitive biases in blaming the victim.                Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 161-177.                             Jenkins, M. J., & Dambrot, F. H. (1987). The attribution of date rape: Observer's attitudes                 and sexual experiences and the dating situation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17,                 875-895.                             Jensen, I. W., & Gutek, B. A. (1982). Attributions and assignment of responsibility in                  sexual harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 38, 121-136.

 

Rape Victim    16                             Jones, E. E., & Aronson, E. (1973). Attribution of fault to a rape victim as a function of                 respectability of the victim. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 415-419.                             Kanekar, S., & Kolsawalla, M. B. (1980). Responsibility of a rape victim in relation to                  her respectability, attractiveness, and provocativeness. Journal of Social Psychology, 112,                 153-154.                             Kanekar, S., & Nazareth, A. M. (1988). Attributed rape victim's fault as a function of her                 attractiveness, physical hurt, and emotional disturbance. Social Behavior, 3, 37-40.                             Klemack, S. H., & Klemack, D. L. (1976). The social definition of rape. In M. J. Walker &                  S. L. Brodsky (Eds.), Sexual assault. Lexington, MA: Heath.                             Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. New York:                  Plenum Press.                             Lerner, M. J., & Miller, D. T. (1978). Just world research and the attribution process:                  Looking back and ahead. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1030-1051.                             Lerner, M. J., & Simmons, C. H. (1966). Observer's reaction to the innocent victim:                  Compassion or rejection? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 203-210.                             McCaul, K. D., Veltum, L. G., Boyechko, V., & Crawford, J. J. (1990). Understanding                 attributions of victim blame for rape: Sex, violence, and foreseeability. Journal of Applied                Social Psychology, 20, 1-26.                             Muehlenhard, C. L. (1988). Misinterpreted dating behaviors and the risk of date rape.                 Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6, 20-37.                             Muehlenhard, C. L., Friedman, D. E. & Thomas, C. M. (1985). Is date rape justifiable?

 

Rape Victim    17                 The effects of  dating activity, who initiated, who paid, and men's attitudes toward women.                 Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 297-309.                             Muehlenhard, C. L., & Hollabaugh, L. C. (1988). Do women sometimes say no when                 they mean yes? The prevalence and correlates of women's token resistance to sex. Journal                of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 872-879.                             Muehlenhard, C. L., & Rodgers, C. S. (1993, August). Token resistance to sex:                Challenging a sexist stereotype. Presented at the annual meeting of the American                  Psychological Association, Toronto.                             Pugh, M. D. (1983). Contributory fault and rape convictions: Loglinear models for                  blaming the victim. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46, 233-242.                             Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1977). Self focussed attention and the experience of                 emotion: Attraction, repulsion, elation, and depression. Journal of Personality and Social                Psychology, 35, 625-636.                             Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1980). Private and public attention, resistance to                  change, and dissonance reduction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 390-                 405.                             Scully, D., & Marolla, J. (1984). Convicted rapists' vocabulary of motive: Excuses and                 justifications. Social Problems, 31, 530-544.                             Shaver, K. G. (1985). The attribution of blame: Causality, responsibility, and                blameworthiness. New York: Springer-Verlag.                             Snyder, M., & Monson, T. C. (1975). Persons, situations, and the control of social

 

Rape Victim    18                 behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 637-644.                             Tetreault, P. A., & Lowman, R. P. (1987). Attributions of responsibility in reports of                stranger rape. Presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association,                  New York.                             Wahlsten, D. (1991). Sample size to detect a planned contrast and a one-degree-of-                 freedom interaction effect. Psychological Bulletin, 10, 587-595.                             Walster, E. (1966). Assignment of responsibility for an accident. Journal of Personality                and Social Psychology, 3, 73-79.                             Ward, C. (1988). The attitudes toward rape victims scale: Construction, validation, and                 cross-cultural applicability. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 127-146.                             Webb, W. M., Marsh, K. L., Schneiderman, W., & Davis, B. (1989). Interaction between                 self-monitoring and manipulated states of self-awareness. Journal of Personality and Social                Psychology, 56, 70-80.                             Weis, K., & Borges, S. S.  (1973). Victimology and  rape: The case of the legitimate                  victim. Issues in Criminology, 8, 71-115.                             Wicklund, R. A. (1979). The influence of self-awareness on human behavior. American                Scientist, 67, 187-193.

Please circle the letter that corresponds the way you view each of the following questions. There are no right or wrong answers and do not leave any question blank.

                     A                                        B                           C                         D                              E
        Disagree Strongly          Disagree Mildly          Neutral          Agree Mildly          Agree Strongly

_____ 1.   A raped woman is a less desirable woman.

_____ 2. The extent of the woman's resistance should be the major factor in determining if a
                 rape has occurred.

_____ 3.   A raped woman is usually an innocent victim.

_____ 4.   Women often claim rape to protect their reputations.

_____ 5.   "Good" girls are as likely to be raped as "bad" girls.

_____ 6.   Women who have had prior sexual relationships should not complain about rape.

_____ 7.   Women do not provoke rape by their appearance or behavior.

_____ 8.   Intoxicated women are usually willing to have sexual relations.

_____ 9.   It would do some women good to be raped.

_____ 10. Even women who feel guilty about engaging in premarital sex are not likely to falsely
                  claim rape.

_____ 11. Most women secretly desire to be raped.

_____ 12. Any female may be raped.

_____ 13. Women who are raped while accepting rides from strangers get what they deserve.

_____ 14. Many women invent rape stories if they learn they are pregnant.

_____ 15. Men, not women, are responsible for rape.

_____ 16. A woman who goes out alone at night puts herself in a position to be raped.

_____ 17. Many women claim rape if they have consented to sexual relations, but have changed
                  their minds afterward.

_____ 18. Accusations of rape by bar girls, dance hostesses and prostitutes should be viewed
                  with suspicion.

_____ 19. A woman should not blame herself for rape.

_____ 20. A healthy woman can successfully resist a rapist if she really tries.

_____ 21. Many women who report rape are lying because they are angry or want revenge on the
                  accused.

_____ 22. Women who wear short skirts or tight blouses are not inviting rape.

_____ 23. Women put themselves in situations in which they are likely to be sexually assaulted,
                   because they have an unconscious wish to be raped.

_____ 24. Sexually experienced women are not really damaged by rape.

_____ 25. In most cases when a woman was raped, she deserved it.

Please circle the number that corresponds the way you view each of the following questions. There
are no right or wrong answers and do not leave any question blank.

                           1                   2                  3                 4                 5                  6                 7
                      Agree         Agree        Agree       Neutral      Disagree    Disagree    Disagree
                     Strongly      Mildly       Slightly                        Slightly      Mildly       Strongly

_____ 1. A woman who goes to the home or apartment of a man on their first date implies that
                she is willing to have sex.

_____ 2.   Any female can get raped.

_____ 3.   One reason that women falsely report a rape is that they frequently have a need to call
                  attention to themselves.

_____ 4.   Any healthy woman can successfully resist a rapist if she really wants to.

_____ 5.   When women go around braless or wearing short skirts and tight tops, they are just
                   asking for trouble.

_____ 6.  In the majority of rapes, the victim is promiscuous or has a bad reputation.

_____ 7.   If a girl engages in necking or petting and she lets things get out of hand, it is her own
                  fault if her partner forces sex on her.

_____ 8.  Women who get raped while hitchhiking get what they deserve.

_____ 9. A woman who is stuck-up and thinks she is too good to talk to guys on the street
                deserves to be taught a lesson.

_____ 10.  Many women have an unconscious wish to be raped, and may then unconsciously set
                   up a situation in which they are likely to be attacked.

_____ 11.  If a woman gets drunk at a party and has intercourse with a man she's just met there,
                   she should be considered "fair game" to other males at the party who want to have sex
                   with her, whether she wants to or not.

 Use the following scale for the next two items

                         1                     2                 3                  4                   5
                    Almost         About        About         About        Almost
                    All                3/4               Half             1/4               None

_____ 12.  What percentage of women who report a rape would you say are lying because they
                    are angry and want to get back at the man they accuse?

_____ 13. What percentage of reported rapes would you guess were merely invented by women
                   who discovered they were pregnant and wanted to protect their own reputation.

A person comes to you and claims they were raped.  How likely would you be to believe their
statement if the person were:

                         1                          2                       3                      4                      5
                    Always           Frequently      Sometimes         Rarely            Never

_____ 14. Your best friend?

_____ 15. An Indian woman?

_____ 16. A neighborhood woman?

_____ 17. A young boy?

_____ 18. A Black woman?

_____ 19. A White woman?

I freely and voluntarily consent to be a participant in the research project entitled "Perceptual Skills
and Evaluations of Interactions" to be conducted at Valdosta State University with Sue D. Nym as
Principal Investigator. I have been told that this experiment will last approximately 40 minutes.

I understand that the research procedures will be as follows: I will be asked to answer two scales
that ascertain how I perceive the world and those in it and determine whether I hold traditional or
modern attitudes. I will then be asked to complete a brief cognitive task that involves writing letters
upside down and backwards. Next, I will be asked to read an explicit scenario that deals with the
sensitive issue of sexual assault, and then answer a questionnaire designed to assess my perception
of the incidents that occurred in the scenario.

I understand that there are no known risks involved in my participation in this study. If I need to
talk to someone about my experiences at Valdosta State University, I understand that I can call the
Counseling Center at 912-333-5940. I understand that every effort will be made to keep my data
confidential. My responses will be identified only by a code number and never by my name. I
understand that I may talk individually with the experimenter about the experiment if I so desire.

I understand that I may withdraw my consent and discontinue participation at any time without
receiving any negative consequences. I have been given the opportunity to ask questions
concerning the procedure, and any questions have been answered to my satisfaction.

I understand that if I desire further information about this matter, I should contact Sue D. Nym
at 912-867-5309. This project, (insert IRB number), has been reviewed by the Valdosta State
University Institutional Review Board. Any questions regarding the conduct of this research or your
rights as a research participant may be directed to Dr. Mary H. Watson, IRB Administrator, 912-333-
7837. I understand that I will receive a copy of this consent form.

I have read and understood the above.

Participant’s signature ___________________________________________  Date _________

I have explained and defined in detail the research procedure in which the participant has agreed to
participate, and have given him/her a copy of this informed consent form.

Experimenter’s signature _________________________________________  Date _________
 

Jim parked his car in the visitor parking space at Old Gooseberry Apartments and began the short
walk to Suzie's apartment. When she answered the door, she invited him in while she finished
getting ready for their date. While waiting, Jim checked himself in the mirror. His 5 foot, 10 inch, 160
pound frame fit well into the cotton sport jacket and jeans he had worn for the occasion. When
Suzie walked into the living room and over to Jim, he smiled and said that he really liked the floral
print summer dress she was wearing. Suzie was only 5 feet, 2 inches and 110 pounds, small in
relation to Jim.

Suzie and Jim made small talk as they walked to the car. Suzie said she was really looking forward to
the movie and had wanted to see "Star Wars: Episode I" for a long time. As they drove to the theater,
they talked about the friends they had in common and the trouble President Clinton was having as
President.

After parking the car, they waited in line, talking about the great reviews of the movie. Jim bought the
tickets and they went inside. Jim asked Suzie if she would like something to drink and she said sure,
then gave Jim some money to help pay for a large popcorn and soft drinks.  Just before the movie
started, Suzie reached over to hold Jim's hand. Both were spellbound by the movie and neither talked
until the film was over. It was still early in the evening after the movie, so Jim suggested that they go
to a park where they could listen to music and talk. Suzie said "Okay".

When they got to the park, Jim pulled into a secluded area and put a popular Compact Disc in his
stereo. They sat in his car for a while, listening to music and talking. Occasionally their eyes would
meet and then both would quickly look away. The next time their eyes made contact, Suzie and Jim
moved closer to each other and kissed each other softly.

Jim put both arms around Suzie and held her close to him. He kissed her again, longer this time, and
then opened his mouth slightly so that his tongue touched hers. Suzie opened her mouth wider,
allowing Jim's tongue to move further into her mouth. Feeling her responsiveness, he continued to
kiss her like this for a while.

With Suzie stroking his shoulder, Jim slid his hand inside her dress and began to fondle her breast.
With the other hand, he started unbuttoning her dress. Suzie's breathing became more rapid. She began
to unbutton Jim's shirt and stroke his chest. Soon Jim managed to finish unbuttoning Suzie's dress and
with Suzie's help he slipped it off her shoulders. Breathing heavily, Suzie pressed her breasts against
Jim's chest and hugged him tight. Kissing her so that their mouths were in continuous contact, he slid
his hand down and touched her genital area, with Suzie struggling and saying, "I don't want to." Jim
answered, "Relax, Suzie, don't worry." Then he slid her dress completely off, removed her underwear
and then quickly unzipped his pants and pulled them down. Suzie protested once more. "No, Jim,
don't!" and began to struggle. Jim said, "Don't worry.  I'll take care of everything." With Suzie totally
naked, Jim leaned against her and pushed her back until he was on top of her. Suzie moved her body
around trying to get loose.  She looked at Jim and again said, "I don't want to!  Stop!  I want to get
up!" Jim answered, "Relax, Suzie, don't worry." He continued to kiss and fondle her, and soon and
intercourse occurred. Afterwards, Jim took Suzie back to her apartment and left.

Please answer the following questions:

1.  Your Sex: (1) Male _________  (2) Female _________

2.  Your Age: ____________

3.  Cultural Background (check one):

     _____ White, non-Hispanic      _____Asian (Country): __________________________

     _____ African American          _____ American Indian

     _____ Hispanic                        _____ Other, please specify: ______________________

4.  How responsible do you feel Suzie was for the sexual encounter that occurred?

                     1             2            3            4            5            6            7            8            9
        Not At All                                                                                                       Very
        Responsible                                                                                                    Responsible

5.  How responsible do you feel Jim was for the sexual encounter that occurred?

                     1             2            3            4            5            6            7            8            9
        Not At All                                                                                                       Very
        Responsible                                                                                                    Responsible

6.  In what manner do you believe Suzie to be dressed?

                     1             2            3            4            5            6            7            8            9
                  Plain                                                                                                        Sexy

7.  How deserving of the incident was Suzie?

                      1             2            3            4            5            6            7            8            9
        Not At All                                                                                                       Very
        Deserving                                                                                                    Deserving

8.  How attractive do you believe Suzie to be?

                     1             2            3            4            5            6            7            8            9
        Not At All                                                                                                       Very
        Attractive                                                                                                    Attractive

9.  Do you feel that Suzie should press charges against Jim for rape?

             _______ No      _______ Yes
 

In the space provided below, please describe the room in which you completed the experiment.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

I would like to thank you for your participation in the present study entitled "Perceptual Skills and
Evaluations of Interactions." Your cooperation is greatly appreciated, for without your help this
study would not be possible. The experiment was designed to discover how attitudes and self-
awareness affects perceptions of culpability. Some participants in this experiment read the fictitious
date rape scenario and filled out the questionnaire in the presence of a small mirror or a video
camera in order to focus them on their attitudes toward rape victims and rape myths.  Other
participants filled out the materials without a mirror or video camera present.

The attitude measures were obtained through the two scales that you answered prior to reading the
scenario. If you wish further information regarding those scales, then please feel free to contact me
at the number listed below.

I encourage you to stop by and see me some time next semester if you would like to find out the
results of the study. I would be happy to discuss the findings with you. For those of you interested
in obtaining further information on the topic, I have included two references at the bottom of the
page.

Finally, I would ask you not to tell anyone else about the study. If future participants come into the
study ahead of time knowing what it is about, then this bias will ruin the results. If you have any
further questions or comments, then please feel free to contact me. Sue D. Nym (912) 867-5309
 

            Gerdes, E. P., Dammann, E. J., & Heilig, K. E. (1988). Perceptions of rape victims and assailants: Effects of
physical attractiveness, acquaintance, and participant gender.Sex Roles, 19, 141-153.
            L'Armand, K., & Pepitone, A. (1982). Judgments of rape: A study of victim-rapist relationship and victim sexual
history. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 134-139.